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+.. highlight:: sh
+
+Ubuntu 22.04 Root on ZFS
+========================
+
+.. contents:: Table of Contents
+  :local:
+
+Overview
+--------
+
+.. note::
+  Ubuntu 22.04 has not been released yet.  These are beta instructions.
+
+Ubuntu Installer
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The Ubuntu installer has `support for root-on-ZFS
+<https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2020/03/ubuntu-20-04s-zsys-adds-zfs-snapshots-to-package-management/>`__.
+This HOWTO produces nearly identical results as the Ubuntu installer because of
+`bidirectional collaboration
+<https://ubuntu.com/blog/enhancing-our-zfs-support-on-ubuntu-19-10-an-introduction>`__.
+
+If you want a single-disk, unencrypted, desktop install, use the installer. It
+is far easier and faster than doing everything by hand.
+
+If you want a ZFS native encrypted, desktop install, you can `trivially edit
+the installer
+<https://linsomniac.gitlab.io/post/2020-04-09-ubuntu-2004-encrypted-zfs/>`__.
+The ``-o recordsize=1M`` there is unrelated to encryption; omit that unless
+you understand it. Make sure to use a password that is at least 8 characters
+or this hack will crash the installer. Additionally, once the system is
+installed, you should switch to encrypted swap::
+
+  swapon -v
+  # Note the device, including the partition.
+
+  ls -l /dev/disk/by-id/
+  # Find the by-id name of the disk.
+
+  sudo swapoff -a
+  sudo vi /etc/fstab
+  # Remove the swap entry.
+
+  sudo apt install --yes cryptsetup
+
+  # Replace DISK-partN as appropriate from above:
+  echo swap /dev/disk/by-id/DISK-partN /dev/urandom \
+      swap,cipher=aes-xts-plain64:sha256,size=512 | sudo tee -a /etc/crypttab
+  echo /dev/mapper/swap none swap defaults 0 0 | sudo tee -a /etc/fstab
+
+`Hopefully the installer will gain encryption support in
+the future
+<https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/ubiquity/+bug/1857398>`__.
+
+If you want to setup a mirror or raidz topology, use LUKS encryption, and/or
+install a server (no desktop GUI), use this HOWTO.
+
+Raspberry Pi
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+If you are looking to install on a Raspberry Pi, see
+:doc:`Ubuntu 20.04 Root on ZFS for Raspberry Pi`.
+
+Caution
+~~~~~~~
+
+- This HOWTO uses a whole physical disk.
+- Do not use these instructions for dual-booting.
+- Backup your data. Any existing data will be lost.
+
+System Requirements
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+- `Ubuntu 20.04.3 (“jammy”) Desktop CD
+  <https://releases.ubuntu.com/20.04/ubuntu-20.04.4-desktop-amd64.iso>`__
+  (*not* any server images)
+- Installing on a drive which presents 4 KiB logical sectors (a “4Kn” drive)
+  only works with UEFI booting. This not unique to ZFS. `GRUB does not and
+  will not work on 4Kn with legacy (BIOS) booting.
+  <http://savannah.gnu.org/bugs/?46700>`__
+
+Computers that have less than 2 GiB of memory run ZFS slowly. 4 GiB of memory
+is recommended for normal performance in basic workloads. If you wish to use
+deduplication, you will need `massive amounts of RAM
+<http://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFSTuningGuide#Deduplication>`__. Enabling
+deduplication is a permanent change that cannot be easily reverted.
+
+Support
+~~~~~~~
+
+If you need help, reach out to the community using the :ref:`mailing_lists` or IRC at
+`#zfsonlinux <ircs://irc.libera.chat/#zfsonlinux>`__ on `Libera Chat
+<https://libera.chat/>`__. If you have a bug report or feature request
+related to this HOWTO, please `file a new issue and mention @rlaager
+<https://github.com/openzfs/openzfs-docs/issues/new?body=@rlaager,%20I%20have%20the%20following%20issue%20with%20the%20Ubuntu%2020.04%20Root%20on%20ZFS%20HOWTO:>`__.
+
+Contributing
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+#. Fork and clone: https://github.com/openzfs/openzfs-docs
+
+#. Install the tools::
+
+    sudo apt install python3-pip
+
+    pip3 install -r docs/requirements.txt
+
+    # Add ~/.local/bin to your $PATH, e.g. by adding this to ~/.bashrc:
+    PATH=$HOME/.local/bin:$PATH
+
+#. Make your changes.
+
+#. Test::
+
+    cd docs
+    make html
+    sensible-browser _build/html/index.html
+
+#. ``git commit --signoff`` to a branch, ``git push``, and create a pull
+   request. Mention @rlaager.
+
+Encryption
+~~~~~~~~~~
+
+This guide supports three different encryption options: unencrypted, ZFS
+native encryption, and LUKS. With any option, all ZFS features are fully
+available.
+
+Unencrypted does not encrypt anything, of course. With no encryption
+happening, this option naturally has the best performance.
+
+ZFS native encryption encrypts the data and most metadata in the root
+pool. It does not encrypt dataset or snapshot names or properties. The
+boot pool is not encrypted at all, but it only contains the bootloader,
+kernel, and initrd. (Unless you put a password in ``/etc/fstab``, the
+initrd is unlikely to contain sensitive data.) The system cannot boot
+without the passphrase being entered at the console. Performance is
+good. As the encryption happens in ZFS, even if multiple disks (mirror
+or raidz topologies) are used, the data only has to be encrypted once.
+
+LUKS encrypts almost everything. The only unencrypted data is the bootloader,
+kernel, and initrd. The system cannot boot without the passphrase being
+entered at the console. Performance is good, but LUKS sits underneath ZFS, so
+if multiple disks (mirror or raidz topologies) are used, the data has to be
+encrypted once per disk.
+
+Step 1: Prepare The Install Environment
+---------------------------------------
+
+#. Boot the Ubuntu Live CD. Select Try Ubuntu. Connect your system to the
+   Internet as appropriate (e.g. join your WiFi network). Open a terminal
+   (press Ctrl-Alt-T).
+
+#. Setup and update the repositories::
+
+     sudo apt update
+
+#. Optional: Install and start the OpenSSH server in the Live CD environment:
+
+   If you have a second system, using SSH to access the target system can be
+   convenient::
+
+     passwd
+     # There is no current password.
+     sudo apt install --yes openssh-server vim
+
+   Installing the full ``vim`` package fixes terminal problems that occur when
+   using the ``vim-tiny`` package (that ships in the Live CD environment) over
+   SSH.
+
+   **Hint:** You can find your IP address with
+   ``ip addr show scope global | grep inet``. Then, from your main machine,
+   connect with ``ssh ubuntu@IP``.
+
+#. Disable automounting:
+
+   If the disk has been used before (with partitions at the same offsets),
+   previous filesystems (e.g. the ESP) will automount if not disabled::
+
+     gsettings set org.gnome.desktop.media-handling automount false
+
+#. Become root::
+
+     sudo -i
+
+#. Install ZFS in the Live CD environment::
+
+     apt install --yes debootstrap gdisk zfsutils-linux
+
+     systemctl stop zed
+
+Step 2: Disk Formatting
+-----------------------
+
+#. Set a variable with the disk name::
+
+     DISK=/dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk1
+
+   Always use the long ``/dev/disk/by-id/*`` aliases with ZFS. Using the
+   ``/dev/sd*`` device nodes directly can cause sporadic import failures,
+   especially on systems that have more than one storage pool.
+
+   **Hints:**
+
+   - ``ls -la /dev/disk/by-id`` will list the aliases.
+   - Are you doing this in a virtual machine? If your virtual disk is missing
+     from ``/dev/disk/by-id``, use ``/dev/vda`` if you are using KVM with
+     virtio; otherwise, read the `troubleshooting <#troubleshooting>`__
+     section.
+
+#. If you are re-using a disk, clear it as necessary:
+
+   Ensure swap partitions are not in use::
+   
+     swapoff --all
+
+   If the disk was previously used in an MD array::
+
+     apt install --yes mdadm
+
+     # See if one or more MD arrays are active:
+     cat /proc/mdstat
+     # If so, stop them (replace ``md0`` as required):
+     mdadm --stop /dev/md0
+
+     # For an array using the whole disk:
+     mdadm --zero-superblock --force $DISK
+     # For an array using a partition (e.g. a swap partition per this HOWTO):
+     mdadm --zero-superblock --force ${DISK}-part2
+
+   Clear the partition table::
+
+     sgdisk --zap-all $DISK
+
+   If you get a message about the kernel still using the old partition table,
+   reboot and start over (except that you can skip this step).
+
+#. Create bootloader partition(s)::
+
+     sgdisk     -n1:1M:+512M   -t1:EF00 $DISK
+
+     # For legacy (BIOS) booting:
+     sgdisk -a1 -n5:24K:+1000K -t5:EF02 $DISK
+
+   **Note:** While the Ubuntu installer uses an MBR label for legacy (BIOS)
+   booting, this HOWTO uses GPT partition labels for both UEFI and legacy
+   (BIOS) booting. This is simpler than having two options.  It is also
+   provides forward compatibility (future proofing).  In other words, for
+   legacy (BIOS) booting, this will allow you to move the disk(s) to a new
+   system/motherboard in the future without having to rebuild the pool (and
+   restore your data from a backup). The ESP is created in both cases for
+   similar reasons.  Additionally, the ESP is used for ``/boot/grub`` in
+   single-disk installs, as :ref:`discussed below <boot-grub-esp>`.
+
+#. Create a partition for swap:
+
+   Previous versions of this HOWTO put swap on a zvol. `Ubuntu recommends
+   against this configuration due to deadlocks.
+   <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/zfs-linux/+bug/1847628>`__ There
+   is `a bug report upstream
+   <https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/issues/7734>`__.
+
+   Putting swap on a partition gives up the benefit of ZFS checksums (for your
+   swap). That is probably the right trade-off given the reports of ZFS
+   deadlocks with swap. If you are bothered by this, simply do not enable
+   swap.
+
+   Choose one of the following options if you want swap:
+
+   - For a single-disk install::
+
+       sgdisk     -n2:0:+500M    -t2:8200 $DISK
+
+   - For a mirror or raidz topology::
+
+       sgdisk     -n2:0:+500M    -t2:FD00 $DISK
+
+   Adjust the swap swize to your needs.  If you wish to enable hiberation
+   (which only works for unencrypted installs), the swap partition must be
+   at least as large as the system's RAM.
+
+#. Create a boot pool partition::
+
+     sgdisk     -n3:0:+2G      -t3:BE00 $DISK
+
+   The Ubuntu installer uses 5% of the disk space constrained to a minimum of
+   500 MiB and a maximum of 2 GiB. `Making this too small (and 500 MiB might
+   be too small) can result in an inability to upgrade the kernel.
+   <https://medium.com/@andaag/how-i-moved-a-ext4-ubuntu-install-to-encrypted-zfs-62af1170d46c>`__
+
+#. Create a root pool partition:
+
+   Choose one of the following options:
+
+   - Unencrypted or ZFS native encryption::
+
+       sgdisk     -n4:0:0        -t4:BF00 $DISK
+
+   - LUKS::
+
+       sgdisk     -n4:0:0        -t4:8309 $DISK
+
+   If you are creating a mirror or raidz topology, repeat the partitioning
+   commands for all the disks which will be part of the pool.
+
+#. Create the boot pool::
+
+     zpool create \
+         -o cachefile=/etc/zfs/zpool.cache \
+         -o ashift=12 -o autotrim=on -d \
+         -o feature@async_destroy=enabled \
+         -o feature@bookmarks=enabled \
+         -o feature@embedded_data=enabled \
+         -o feature@empty_bpobj=enabled \
+         -o feature@enabled_txg=enabled \
+         -o feature@extensible_dataset=enabled \
+         -o feature@filesystem_limits=enabled \
+         -o feature@hole_birth=enabled \
+         -o feature@large_blocks=enabled \
+         -o feature@lz4_compress=enabled \
+         -o feature@spacemap_histogram=enabled \
+         -O acltype=posixacl -O canmount=off -O compression=lz4 \
+         -O devices=off -O normalization=formD -O relatime=on -O xattr=sa \
+         -O mountpoint=/boot -R /mnt \
+         bpool ${DISK}-part3
+
+   You should not need to customize any of the options for the boot pool.
+
+   GRUB does not support all of the zpool features. See ``spa_feature_names``
+   in `grub-core/fs/zfs/zfs.c
+   <http://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/grub.git/tree/grub-core/fs/zfs/zfs.c#n276>`__.
+   This step creates a separate boot pool for ``/boot`` with the features
+   limited to only those that GRUB supports, allowing the root pool to use
+   any/all features. Note that GRUB opens the pool read-only, so all
+   read-only compatible features are “supported” by GRUB.
+
+   **Hints:**
+
+   - If you are creating a mirror topology, create the pool using::
+
+       zpool create \
+           ... \
+           bpool mirror \
+           /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk1-part3 \
+           /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk2-part3
+
+   - For raidz topologies, replace ``mirror`` in the above command with
+     ``raidz``, ``raidz2``, or  ``raidz3`` and list the partitions from
+     additional disks.
+   - The boot pool name is no longer arbitrary.  It _must_ be ``bpool``.
+     If you really want to rename it, edit ``/etc/grub.d/10_linux_zfs`` later,
+     after GRUB is installed (and run ``update-grub``).
+
+   **Feature Notes:**
+
+   - The ``allocation_classes`` feature should be safe to use. However, unless
+     one is using it (i.e. a ``special`` vdev), there is no point to enabling
+     it. It is extremely unlikely that someone would use this feature for a
+     boot pool. If one cares about speeding up the boot pool, it would make
+     more sense to put the whole pool on the faster disk rather than using it
+     as a ``special`` vdev.
+   - The ``project_quota`` feature has been tested and is safe to use. This
+     feature is extremely unlikely to matter for the boot pool.
+   - The ``resilver_defer`` should be safe but the boot pool is small enough
+     that it is unlikely to be necessary.
+   - The ``spacemap_v2`` feature has been tested and is safe to use. The boot
+     pool is small, so this does not matter in practice.
+   - As a read-only compatible feature, the ``userobj_accounting`` feature
+     should be compatible in theory, but in practice, GRUB can fail with an
+     “invalid dnode type” error. This feature does not matter for ``/boot``
+     anyway.
+
+#. Create the root pool:
+
+   Choose one of the following options:
+
+   - Unencrypted::
+
+       zpool create \
+           -o ashift=12 -o autotrim=on \
+           -O acltype=posixacl -O canmount=off -O compression=lz4 \
+           -O dnodesize=auto -O normalization=formD -O relatime=on \
+           -O xattr=sa -O mountpoint=/ -R /mnt \
+           rpool ${DISK}-part4
+
+   - ZFS native encryption::
+
+       zpool create \
+           -o ashift=12 -o autotrim=on \
+           -O encryption=aes-256-gcm \
+           -O keylocation=prompt -O keyformat=passphrase \
+           -O acltype=posixacl -O canmount=off -O compression=lz4 \
+           -O dnodesize=auto -O normalization=formD -O relatime=on \
+           -O xattr=sa -O mountpoint=/ -R /mnt \
+           rpool ${DISK}-part4
+
+   - LUKS::
+
+       cryptsetup luksFormat -c aes-xts-plain64 -s 512 -h sha256 ${DISK}-part4
+       cryptsetup luksOpen ${DISK}-part4 luks1
+       zpool create \
+           -o ashift=12 -o autotrim=on \
+           -O acltype=posixacl -O canmount=off -O compression=lz4 \
+           -O dnodesize=auto -O normalization=formD -O relatime=on \
+           -O xattr=sa -O mountpoint=/ -R /mnt \
+           rpool /dev/mapper/luks1
+
+   **Notes:**
+
+   - The use of ``ashift=12`` is recommended here because many drives
+     today have 4 KiB (or larger) physical sectors, even though they
+     present 512 B logical sectors. Also, a future replacement drive may
+     have 4 KiB physical sectors (in which case ``ashift=12`` is desirable)
+     or 4 KiB logical sectors (in which case ``ashift=12`` is required).
+   - Setting ``-O acltype=posixacl`` enables POSIX ACLs globally. If you
+     do not want this, remove that option, but later add
+     ``-o acltype=posixacl`` (note: lowercase “o”) to the ``zfs create``
+     for ``/var/log``, as `journald requires ACLs
+     <https://askubuntu.com/questions/970886/journalctl-says-failed-to-search-journal-acl-operation-not-supported>`__
+     Also, `disabling ACLs apparently breaks umask handling with NFSv4
+     <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/nfs-utils/+bug/1779736>`__.
+   - Setting ``normalization=formD`` eliminates some corner cases relating
+     to UTF-8 filename normalization. It also implies ``utf8only=on``,
+     which means that only UTF-8 filenames are allowed. If you care to
+     support non-UTF-8 filenames, do not use this option. For a discussion
+     of why requiring UTF-8 filenames may be a bad idea, see `The problems
+     with enforced UTF-8 only filenames
+     <http://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/linux/ForcedUTF8Filenames>`__.
+   - ``recordsize`` is unset (leaving it at the default of 128 KiB). If you
+     want to tune it (e.g. ``-o recordsize=1M``), see `these
+     <https://jrs-s.net/2019/04/03/on-zfs-recordsize/>`__ `various
+     <http://blog.programster.org/zfs-record-size>`__ `blog
+     <https://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/solaris/ZFSFileRecordsizeGrowth>`__
+     `posts
+     <https://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/solaris/ZFSRecordsizeAndCompression>`__.
+   - Setting ``relatime=on`` is a middle ground between classic POSIX
+     ``atime`` behavior (with its significant performance impact) and
+     ``atime=off`` (which provides the best performance by completely
+     disabling atime updates). Since Linux 2.6.30, ``relatime`` has been
+     the default for other filesystems. See `RedHat’s documentation
+     <https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux/6/html/power_management_guide/relatime>`__
+     for further information.
+   - Setting ``xattr=sa`` `vastly improves the performance of extended
+     attributes
+     <https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/commit/82a37189aac955c81a59a5ecc3400475adb56355>`__.
+     Inside ZFS, extended attributes are used to implement POSIX ACLs.
+     Extended attributes can also be used by user-space applications.
+     `They are used by some desktop GUI applications.
+     <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_file_attributes#Linux>`__
+     `They can be used by Samba to store Windows ACLs and DOS attributes;
+     they are required for a Samba Active Directory domain controller.
+     <https://wiki.samba.org/index.php/Setting_up_a_Share_Using_Windows_ACLs>`__
+     Note that ``xattr=sa`` is `Linux-specific
+     <https://openzfs.org/wiki/Platform_code_differences>`__. If you move your
+     ``xattr=sa`` pool to another OpenZFS implementation besides ZFS-on-Linux,
+     extended attributes will not be readable (though your data will be). If
+     portability of extended attributes is important to you, omit the
+     ``-O xattr=sa`` above. Even if you do not want ``xattr=sa`` for the whole
+     pool, it is probably fine to use it for ``/var/log``.
+   - Make sure to include the ``-part4`` portion of the drive path. If you
+     forget that, you are specifying the whole disk, which ZFS will then
+     re-partition, and you will lose the bootloader partition(s).
+   - ZFS native encryption defaults to ``aes-256-ccm``, but `the default has
+     changed upstream
+     <https://github.com/openzfs/zfs/commit/31b160f0a6c673c8f926233af2ed6d5354808393>`__
+     to ``aes-256-gcm``. `AES-GCM seems to be generally preferred over AES-CCM
+     <https://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/6842/how-to-choose-between-aes-ccm-and-aes-gcm-for-storage-volume-encryption>`__,
+     `is faster now
+     <https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/pull/9749#issuecomment-569132997>`__,
+     and `will be even faster in the future
+     <https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/pull/9749>`__.
+   - For LUKS, the key size chosen is 512 bits. However, XTS mode requires two
+     keys, so the LUKS key is split in half. Thus, ``-s 512`` means AES-256.
+   - Your passphrase will likely be the weakest link. Choose wisely. See
+     `section 5 of the cryptsetup FAQ
+     <https://gitlab.com/cryptsetup/cryptsetup/wikis/FrequentlyAskedQuestions#5-security-aspects>`__
+     for guidance.
+
+   **Hints:**
+
+   - If you are creating a mirror topology, create the pool using::
+
+       zpool create \
+           ... \
+           rpool mirror \
+           /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk1-part4 \
+           /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk2-part4
+
+   - For raidz topologies, replace ``mirror`` in the above command with
+     ``raidz``, ``raidz2``, or  ``raidz3`` and list the partitions from
+     additional disks.
+   - When using LUKS with mirror or raidz topologies, use
+     ``/dev/mapper/luks1``, ``/dev/mapper/luks2``, etc., which you will have
+     to create using ``cryptsetup``.
+   - The pool name is arbitrary. If changed, the new name must be used
+     consistently. On systems that can automatically install to ZFS, the root
+     pool is named ``rpool`` by default.
+
+Step 3: System Installation
+---------------------------
+
+#. Create filesystem datasets to act as containers::
+
+     zfs create -o canmount=off -o mountpoint=none rpool/ROOT
+     zfs create -o canmount=off -o mountpoint=none bpool/BOOT
+
+#. Create filesystem datasets for the root and boot filesystems::
+
+     UUID=$(dd if=/dev/urandom bs=1 count=100 2>/dev/null |
+         tr -dc 'a-z0-9' | cut -c-6)
+
+     zfs create -o mountpoint=/ \
+         -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=yes \
+         -o com.ubuntu.zsys:last-used=$(date +%s) rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID
+
+     zfs create -o mountpoint=/boot bpool/BOOT/ubuntu_$UUID
+
+#. Create datasets::
+
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=no \
+         rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/srv
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=no -o canmount=off \
+         rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/usr
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/usr/local
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=no -o canmount=off \
+         rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/games
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/lib
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/lib/AccountsService
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/lib/apt
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/lib/dpkg
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/lib/NetworkManager
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/log
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/mail
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/snap
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/spool
+     zfs create rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/var/www
+
+     zfs create -o canmount=off -o mountpoint=/ \
+         rpool/USERDATA
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs-datasets=rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID \
+         -o canmount=on -o mountpoint=/root \
+         rpool/USERDATA/root_$UUID
+     chmod 700 /mnt/root
+
+   For a mirror or raidz topology, create a dataset for ``/boot/grub``::
+
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=no bpool/grub
+
+   Mount a tmpfs at /run::
+
+     mkdir /mnt/run
+     mount -t tmpfs tmpfs /mnt/run
+     mkdir /mnt/run/lock
+
+   A tmpfs is recommended later, but if you want a separate dataset for
+   ``/tmp``::
+
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs=no \
+         rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID/tmp
+     chmod 1777 /mnt/tmp
+
+   The primary goal of this dataset layout is to separate the OS from user
+   data. This allows the root filesystem to be rolled back without rolling
+   back user data.
+
+   If you do nothing extra, ``/tmp`` will be stored as part of the root
+   filesystem. Alternatively, you can create a separate dataset for ``/tmp``,
+   as shown above. This keeps the ``/tmp`` data out of snapshots of your root
+   filesystem. It also allows you to set a quota on ``rpool/tmp``, if you want
+   to limit the maximum space used. Otherwise, you can use a tmpfs (RAM
+   filesystem) later.
+
+#. Install the minimal system::
+
+     debootstrap jammy /mnt
+
+   The ``debootstrap`` command leaves the new system in an unconfigured state.
+   An alternative to using ``debootstrap`` is to copy the entirety of a
+   working system into the new ZFS root.
+
+#. Copy in zpool.cache::
+
+     mkdir /mnt/etc/zfs
+     cp /etc/zfs/zpool.cache /mnt/etc/zfs/
+
+Step 4: System Configuration
+----------------------------
+
+#. Configure the hostname:
+
+   Replace ``HOSTNAME`` with the desired hostname::
+
+     hostname HOSTNAME
+     hostname > /mnt/etc/hostname
+     vi /mnt/etc/hosts
+
+   .. code-block:: text
+
+     Add a line:
+     127.0.1.1       HOSTNAME
+     or if the system has a real name in DNS:
+     127.0.1.1       FQDN HOSTNAME
+
+   **Hint:** Use ``nano`` if you find ``vi`` confusing.
+
+#. Configure the network interface:
+
+   Find the interface name::
+
+     ip addr show
+
+   Adjust ``NAME`` below to match your interface name::
+
+     vi /mnt/etc/netplan/01-netcfg.yaml
+
+   .. code-block:: yaml
+
+     network:
+       version: 2
+       ethernets:
+         NAME:
+           dhcp4: true
+
+   Customize this file if the system is not a DHCP client.
+
+#. Configure the package sources::
+
+     vi /mnt/etc/apt/sources.list
+
+   .. code-block:: sourceslist
+
+     deb http://archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu jammy main restricted universe multiverse
+     deb http://archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu jammy-updates main restricted universe multiverse
+     deb http://archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu jammy-backports main restricted universe multiverse
+     deb http://security.ubuntu.com/ubuntu jammy-security main restricted universe multiverse
+
+#. Bind the virtual filesystems from the LiveCD environment to the new
+   system and ``chroot`` into it::
+
+     mount --make-private --rbind /dev  /mnt/dev
+     mount --make-private --rbind /proc /mnt/proc
+     mount --make-private --rbind /sys  /mnt/sys
+     chroot /mnt /usr/bin/env DISK=$DISK UUID=$UUID bash --login
+
+   **Note:** This is using ``--rbind``, not ``--bind``.
+
+#. Configure a basic system environment::
+
+     apt update
+
+   Even if you prefer a non-English system language, always ensure that
+   ``en_US.UTF-8`` is available::
+
+     dpkg-reconfigure locales tzdata keyboard-configuration console-setup
+
+   Install your preferred text editor::
+
+     apt install --yes nano
+
+     apt install --yes vim
+
+   Installing the full ``vim`` package fixes terminal problems that occur when
+   using the ``vim-tiny`` package (that is installed by ``debootstrap``) over
+   SSH.
+
+#. For LUKS installs only, setup ``/etc/crypttab``::
+
+     apt install --yes cryptsetup
+
+     echo luks1 /dev/disk/by-uuid/$(blkid -s UUID -o value ${DISK}-part4) \
+         none luks,discard,initramfs > /etc/crypttab
+
+   The use of ``initramfs`` is a work-around for `cryptsetup does not support
+   ZFS <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/cryptsetup/+bug/1612906>`__.
+
+   **Hint:** If you are creating a mirror or raidz topology, repeat the
+   ``/etc/crypttab`` entries for ``luks2``, etc. adjusting for each disk.
+
+#. Create the EFI filesystem:
+
+   Perform these steps for both UEFI and legacy (BIOS) booting::
+
+     apt install --yes dosfstools
+
+     mkdosfs -F 32 -s 1 -n EFI ${DISK}-part1
+     mkdir /boot/efi
+     echo /dev/disk/by-uuid/$(blkid -s UUID -o value ${DISK}-part1) \
+         /boot/efi vfat defaults 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+     mount /boot/efi
+
+   For a mirror or raidz topology, repeat the `mkdosfs` for the additional
+   disks, but do not repeat the other commands.
+
+   **Note:** The ``-s 1`` for ``mkdosfs`` is only necessary for drives which
+   present 4 KiB logical sectors (“4Kn” drives) to meet the minimum cluster
+   size (given the partition size of 512 MiB) for FAT32. It also works fine on
+   drives which present 512 B sectors.
+
+#. Put ``/boot/grub`` on the EFI System Partition:
+
+   .. _boot-grub-esp:
+
+   For a single-disk install only::
+
+     mkdir /boot/efi/grub /boot/grub
+     echo /boot/efi/grub /boot/grub none defaults,bind 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+     mount /boot/grub
+
+   This allows GRUB to write to ``/boot/grub`` (since it is on a FAT-formatted
+   ESP instead of on ZFS), which means that ``/boot/grub/grubenv`` and the
+   ``recordfail`` feature works as expected: if the boot fails, the normally
+   hidden GRUB menu will be shown on the next boot. For a mirror or raidz
+   topology, we do not want GRUB writing to the EFI System Partition. This is
+   because we duplicate it at install without a mechanism to update the copies
+   when the GRUB configuration changes (e.g. as the kernel is upgraded). Thus,
+   we keep ``/boot/grub`` on the boot pool for the mirror or raidz topologies.
+   This preserves correct mirroring/raidz behavior, at the expense of being
+   able to write to ``/boot/grub/grubenv`` and thus the ``recordfail``
+   behavior.
+
+#. Install GRUB/Linux/ZFS in the chroot environment for the new system:
+
+   Choose one of the following options:
+
+   - Install GRUB/Linux/ZFS for legacy (BIOS) booting::
+
+       apt install --yes grub-pc linux-image-generic zfs-initramfs zsys
+
+     Select (using the space bar) all of the disks (not partitions) in your
+     pool.
+
+   - Install GRUB/Linux/ZFS for UEFI booting::
+
+       apt install --yes \
+           grub-efi-amd64 grub-efi-amd64-signed linux-image-generic \
+           shim-signed zfs-initramfs zsys
+
+     **Notes:**
+
+     - Ignore any error messages saying ``ERROR: Couldn't resolve device`` and
+       ``WARNING: Couldn't determine root device``.  `cryptsetup does not
+       support ZFS
+       <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/cryptsetup/+bug/1612906>`__.
+
+     - Ignore any error messages saying ``Module zfs not found`` and
+       ``couldn't connect to zsys daemon``.  The first seems to occur due to a
+       version mismatch between the Live CD kernel and the chroot environment,
+       but this is irrelevant since the module is already loaded.  The second
+       may be caused by the first but either way is irrelevant since ``zed``
+       is started manually later.
+
+     - For a mirror or raidz topology, this step only installs GRUB on the
+       first disk. The other disk(s) will be handled later.  For some reason,
+       grub-efi-amd64 does not prompt for ``install_devices`` here, but does
+       after a reboot.
+
+#. Optional: Remove os-prober::
+
+     apt purge --yes os-prober
+
+   This avoids error messages from ``update-grub``.  ``os-prober`` is only
+   necessary in dual-boot configurations.
+
+#. Set a root password::
+
+     passwd
+
+#. Configure swap:
+
+   Choose one of the following options if you want swap:
+
+   - For an unencrypted single-disk install::
+
+       mkswap -f ${DISK}-part2
+       echo /dev/disk/by-uuid/$(blkid -s UUID -o value ${DISK}-part2) \
+           none swap discard 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+       swapon -a
+
+   - For an unencrypted mirror or raidz topology::
+
+       apt install --yes mdadm
+
+       # Adjust the level (ZFS raidz = MD raid5, raidz2 = raid6) and
+       # raid-devices if necessary and specify the actual devices.
+       mdadm --create /dev/md0 --metadata=1.2 --level=mirror \
+           --raid-devices=2 ${DISK1}-part2 ${DISK2}-part2
+       mkswap -f /dev/md0
+       echo /dev/disk/by-uuid/$(blkid -s UUID -o value /dev/md0) \
+           none swap discard 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+
+   - For an encrypted (LUKS or ZFS native encryption) single-disk install::
+
+       apt install --yes cryptsetup
+
+       echo swap ${DISK}-part2 /dev/urandom \
+             swap,cipher=aes-xts-plain64:sha256,size=512 >> /etc/crypttab
+       echo /dev/mapper/swap none swap defaults 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+
+   - For an encrypted (LUKS or ZFS native encryption) mirror or raidz
+     topology::
+
+       apt install --yes cryptsetup mdadm
+
+       # Adjust the level (ZFS raidz = MD raid5, raidz2 = raid6) and
+       # raid-devices if necessary and specify the actual devices.
+       mdadm --create /dev/md0 --metadata=1.2 --level=mirror \
+           --raid-devices=2 ${DISK1}-part2 ${DISK2}-part2
+       echo swap /dev/md0 /dev/urandom \
+             swap,cipher=aes-xts-plain64:sha256,size=512 >> /etc/crypttab
+       echo /dev/mapper/swap none swap defaults 0 0 >> /etc/fstab
+
+#. Optional (but recommended): Mount a tmpfs to ``/tmp``
+
+   If you chose to create a ``/tmp`` dataset above, skip this step, as they
+   are mutually exclusive choices. Otherwise, you can put ``/tmp`` on a
+   tmpfs (RAM filesystem) by enabling the ``tmp.mount`` unit.
+
+   ::
+
+     cp /usr/share/systemd/tmp.mount /etc/systemd/system/
+     systemctl enable tmp.mount
+
+#. Setup system groups::
+
+     addgroup --system lpadmin
+     addgroup --system lxd
+     addgroup --system sambashare
+
+#. Patch a dependency loop:
+
+   For ZFS native encryption or LUKS::
+
+     apt install --yes curl patch
+
+     curl https://launchpadlibrarian.net/478315221/2150-fix-systemd-dependency-loops.patch | \
+         sed "s|/etc|/lib|;s|\.in$||" | (cd / ; patch -p1)
+
+   Ignore the failure in Hunk #2 (say ``n`` twice).
+
+   This patch is from `Bug #1875577 Encrypted swap won't load on 20.04 with
+   zfs root
+   <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/zfs-linux/+bug/1875577>`__.
+
+#. Optional: Install SSH::
+
+     apt install --yes openssh-server
+
+     vi /etc/ssh/sshd_config
+     # Set: PermitRootLogin yes
+
+Step 5: GRUB Installation
+-------------------------
+
+#. Verify that the ZFS boot filesystem is recognized::
+
+     grub-probe /boot
+
+#. Refresh the initrd files::
+
+     update-initramfs -c -k all
+
+   **Note:** Ignore any error messages saying ``ERROR: Couldn't resolve
+   device`` and ``WARNING: Couldn't determine root device``.  `cryptsetup
+   does not support ZFS
+   <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/cryptsetup/+bug/1612906>`__.
+
+#. Disable memory zeroing::
+
+     vi /etc/default/grub
+     # Add init_on_alloc=0 to: GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT
+     # Save and quit (or see the next step).
+
+   This is to address `performance regressions
+   <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/linux/+bug/1862822>`__.
+
+#. Optional (but highly recommended): Make debugging GRUB easier::
+
+     vi /etc/default/grub
+     # Comment out: GRUB_TIMEOUT_STYLE=hidden
+     # Set: GRUB_TIMEOUT=5
+     # Below GRUB_TIMEOUT, add: GRUB_RECORDFAIL_TIMEOUT=5
+     # Remove quiet and splash from: GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT
+     # Uncomment: GRUB_TERMINAL=console
+     # Save and quit.
+
+   Later, once the system has rebooted twice and you are sure everything is
+   working, you can undo these changes, if desired.
+
+#. Update the boot configuration::
+
+     update-grub
+
+   **Note:** Ignore errors from ``osprober``, if present.
+
+#. Install the boot loader:
+
+   Choose one of the following options:
+
+   - For legacy (BIOS) booting, install GRUB to the MBR::
+
+       grub-install $DISK
+
+     Note that you are installing GRUB to the whole disk, not a partition.
+
+     If you are creating a mirror or raidz topology, repeat the
+     ``grub-install`` command for each disk in the pool.
+
+   - For UEFI booting, install GRUB to the ESP::
+
+       grub-install --target=x86_64-efi --efi-directory=/boot/efi \
+           --bootloader-id=ubuntu --recheck --no-floppy
+
+#. Disable grub-initrd-fallback.service
+
+   For a mirror or raidz topology::
+
+     systemctl mask grub-initrd-fallback.service
+
+   This is the service for ``/boot/grub/grubenv`` which does not work on
+   mirrored or raidz topologies. Disabling this keeps it from blocking
+   subsequent mounts of ``/boot/grub`` if that mount ever fails.
+
+   Another option would be to set ``RequiresMountsFor=/boot/grub`` via a
+   drop-in unit, but that is more work to do here for no reason. Hopefully
+   `this bug <https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/grub2/+bug/1881442>`__
+   will be fixed upstream.
+
+#. Fix filesystem mount ordering:
+
+   We need to activate ``zfs-mount-generator``. This makes systemd aware of
+   the separate mountpoints, which is important for things like ``/var/log``
+   and ``/var/tmp``. In turn, ``rsyslog.service`` depends on ``var-log.mount``
+   by way of ``local-fs.target`` and services using the ``PrivateTmp`` feature
+   of systemd automatically use ``After=var-tmp.mount``.
+
+   ::
+
+     mkdir /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache
+     touch /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache/bpool
+     touch /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache/rpool
+     zed -F &
+
+   Verify that ``zed`` updated the cache by making sure these are not empty::
+
+     cat /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache/bpool
+     cat /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache/rpool
+
+   If either is empty, force a cache update and check again::
+
+     zfs set canmount=on bpool/BOOT/ubuntu_$UUID
+     zfs set canmount=on rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_$UUID
+
+   If they are still empty, stop zed (as below), start zed (as above) and try
+   again.
+
+   Once the files have data, stop ``zed``::
+
+     fg
+     Press Ctrl-C.
+
+   Fix the paths to eliminate ``/mnt``::
+
+     sed -Ei "s|/mnt/?|/|" /etc/zfs/zfs-list.cache/*
+
+#. Exit from the ``chroot`` environment back to the LiveCD environment::
+
+     exit
+
+#. Run these commands in the LiveCD environment to unmount all
+   filesystems::
+
+     mount | grep -v zfs | tac | awk '/\/mnt/ {print $3}' | \
+         xargs -i{} umount -lf {}
+     zpool export -a
+
+#. Reboot::
+
+     reboot
+
+   Wait for the newly installed system to boot normally. Login as root.
+
+Step 6: First Boot
+------------------
+
+#. Install GRUB to additional disks:
+
+   For a UEFI mirror or raidz topology only::
+
+     dpkg-reconfigure grub-efi-amd64
+
+     Select (using the space bar) all of the ESP partitions (partition 1 on
+     each of the pool disks).
+
+#. Create a user account:
+
+   Replace ``YOUR_USERNAME`` with your desired username::
+
+     username=YOUR_USERNAME
+
+     UUID=$(dd if=/dev/urandom bs=1 count=100 2>/dev/null |
+         tr -dc 'a-z0-9' | cut -c-6)
+     ROOT_DS=$(zfs list -o name | awk '/ROOT\/ubuntu_/{print $1;exit}')
+     zfs create -o com.ubuntu.zsys:bootfs-datasets=$ROOT_DS \
+         -o canmount=on -o mountpoint=/home/$username \
+         rpool/USERDATA/${username}_$UUID
+     adduser $username
+
+     cp -a /etc/skel/. /home/$username
+     chown -R $username:$username /home/$username
+     usermod -a -G adm,cdrom,dip,lpadmin,lxd,plugdev,sambashare,sudo $username
+
+Step 7: Full Software Installation
+----------------------------------
+
+#. Upgrade the minimal system::
+
+     apt dist-upgrade --yes
+
+#. Install a regular set of software:
+
+   Choose one of the following options:
+
+   - Install a command-line environment only::
+
+       apt install --yes ubuntu-standard
+
+   - Install a full GUI environment::
+
+       apt install --yes ubuntu-desktop
+
+     **Hint**: If you are installing a full GUI environment, you will likely
+     want to manage your network with NetworkManager::
+
+       rm /etc/netplan/01-netcfg.yaml
+       vi /etc/netplan/01-network-manager-all.yaml
+
+     .. code-block:: yaml
+
+       network:
+         version: 2
+         renderer: NetworkManager
+
+#. Optional: Disable log compression:
+
+   As ``/var/log`` is already compressed by ZFS, logrotate’s compression is
+   going to burn CPU and disk I/O for (in most cases) very little gain. Also,
+   if you are making snapshots of ``/var/log``, logrotate’s compression will
+   actually waste space, as the uncompressed data will live on in the
+   snapshot. You can edit the files in ``/etc/logrotate.d`` by hand to comment
+   out ``compress``, or use this loop (copy-and-paste highly recommended)::
+
+     for file in /etc/logrotate.d/* ; do
+         if grep -Eq "(^|[^#y])compress" "$file" ; then
+             sed -i -r "s/(^|[^#y])(compress)/\1#\2/" "$file"
+         fi
+     done
+
+#. Reboot::
+
+     reboot
+
+Step 8: Final Cleanup
+---------------------
+
+#. Wait for the system to boot normally. Login using the account you
+   created. Ensure the system (including networking) works normally.
+
+#. Optional: Disable the root password::
+
+     sudo usermod -p '*' root
+
+#. Optional (but highly recommended): Disable root SSH logins:
+
+   If you installed SSH earlier, revert the temporary change::
+
+     sudo vi /etc/ssh/sshd_config
+     # Remove: PermitRootLogin yes
+
+     sudo systemctl restart ssh
+
+#. Optional: Re-enable the graphical boot process:
+
+   If you prefer the graphical boot process, you can re-enable it now. If
+   you are using LUKS, it makes the prompt look nicer.
+
+   ::
+
+     sudo vi /etc/default/grub
+     # Uncomment: GRUB_TIMEOUT_STYLE=hidden
+     # Add quiet and splash to: GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT
+     # Comment out: GRUB_TERMINAL=console
+     # Save and quit.
+
+     sudo update-grub
+
+   **Note:** Ignore errors from ``osprober``, if present.
+
+#. Optional: For LUKS installs only, backup the LUKS header::
+
+     sudo cryptsetup luksHeaderBackup /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk1-part4 \
+         --header-backup-file luks1-header.dat
+
+   Store that backup somewhere safe (e.g. cloud storage). It is protected by
+   your LUKS passphrase, but you may wish to use additional encryption.
+
+   **Hint:** If you created a mirror or raidz topology, repeat this for each
+   LUKS volume (``luks2``, etc.).
+
+Troubleshooting
+---------------
+
+Rescuing using a Live CD
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Go through `Step 1: Prepare The Install Environment
+<#step-1-prepare-the-install-environment>`__.
+
+For LUKS, first unlock the disk(s)::
+
+  cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/disk/by-id/scsi-SATA_disk1-part4 luks1
+  # Repeat for additional disks, if this is a mirror or raidz topology.
+
+Mount everything correctly::
+
+  zpool export -a
+  zpool import -N -R /mnt rpool
+  zpool import -N -R /mnt bpool
+  zfs load-key -a
+  # Replace “UUID” as appropriate; use zfs list to find it:
+  zfs mount rpool/ROOT/ubuntu_UUID
+  zfs mount bpool/BOOT/ubuntu_UUID
+  zfs mount -a
+
+If needed, you can chroot into your installed environment::
+
+  mount --make-private --rbind /dev  /mnt/dev
+  mount --make-private --rbind /proc /mnt/proc
+  mount --make-private --rbind /sys  /mnt/sys
+  mount -t tmpfs tmpfs /mnt/run
+  mkdir /mnt/run/lock
+  chroot /mnt /bin/bash --login
+  mount -a
+
+Do whatever you need to do to fix your system.
+
+When done, cleanup::
+
+  exit
+  mount | grep -v zfs | tac | awk '/\/mnt/ {print $3}' | \
+      xargs -i{} umount -lf {}
+  zpool export -a
+  reboot
+
+Areca
+~~~~~
+
+Systems that require the ``arcsas`` blob driver should add it to the
+``/etc/initramfs-tools/modules`` file and run ``update-initramfs -c -k all``.
+
+Upgrade or downgrade the Areca driver if something like
+``RIP: 0010:[<ffffffff8101b316>]  [<ffffffff8101b316>] native_read_tsc+0x6/0x20``
+appears anywhere in kernel log. ZoL is unstable on systems that emit this
+error message.
+
+MPT2SAS
+~~~~~~~
+
+Most problem reports for this tutorial involve ``mpt2sas`` hardware that does
+slow asynchronous drive initialization, like some IBM M1015 or OEM-branded
+cards that have been flashed to the reference LSI firmware.
+
+The basic problem is that disks on these controllers are not visible to the
+Linux kernel until after the regular system is started, and ZoL does not
+hotplug pool members. See `https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/issues/330
+<https://github.com/zfsonlinux/zfs/issues/330>`__.
+
+Most LSI cards are perfectly compatible with ZoL. If your card has this
+glitch, try setting ``ZFS_INITRD_PRE_MOUNTROOT_SLEEP=X`` in
+``/etc/default/zfs``. The system will wait ``X`` seconds for all drives to
+appear before importing the pool.
+
+QEMU/KVM/XEN
+~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Set a unique serial number on each virtual disk using libvirt or qemu
+(e.g. ``-drive if=none,id=disk1,file=disk1.qcow2,serial=1234567890``).
+
+To be able to use UEFI in guests (instead of only BIOS booting), run
+this on the host::
+
+  sudo apt install ovmf
+  sudo vi /etc/libvirt/qemu.conf
+
+Uncomment these lines:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+  nvram = [
+     "/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_CODE.fd:/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_VARS.fd",
+     "/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_CODE.secboot.fd:/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_VARS.fd",
+     "/usr/share/AAVMF/AAVMF_CODE.fd:/usr/share/AAVMF/AAVMF_VARS.fd",
+     "/usr/share/AAVMF/AAVMF32_CODE.fd:/usr/share/AAVMF/AAVMF32_VARS.fd",
+     "/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_CODE.ms.fd:/usr/share/OVMF/OVMF_VARS.ms.fd"
+  ]
+
+::
+
+  sudo systemctl restart libvirtd.service
+
+VMware
+~~~~~~
+
+- Set ``disk.EnableUUID = "TRUE"`` in the vmx file or vsphere configuration.
+  Doing this ensures that ``/dev/disk`` aliases are created in the guest.